Graphic Organizer
Teachers of special needs students possess a powerful tool at their disposal, in the form of graphic organizers. Graphic organizers provide visual and spatial representations of information that facilitate the understanding of relationships between facts and concepts. The graphic organizers are meant to transform concepts that are often abstract and intangible into visible constructs that students can comprehend. They help students learn new information, and they even tie the existing knowledge students possess to new information that they are learning (Dexter & Hughes, 2011, p. 52).
Several categories of graphic organizers are: cognitive mapping, semantic mapping, semantic feature analysis, syntactic/ semantic feature analysis, and visual displays.
Several categories of graphic organizers are: cognitive mapping, semantic mapping, semantic feature analysis, syntactic/ semantic feature analysis, and visual displays.
Cognitive Mapping
Figure 1. Cognitive mapping
Cognitive mapping involves visually displaying information and using spatial arrangement and graphic symbols (e.g., arrows) to show the relationship between key concepts and their supporting facts and information. Generally, simple illustrations and keyword phrases are used to minimize details. Teachers can give students a blank cognitive mapping graphic organizer either at the beginning of a lesson, so that students can fill them out during the lesson, or at the end of the lesson for students to fill (Dexter & Hughes, 2011, p. 52). See Figure 1 for an example of a cognitive mapping graphic organizer.
SEMANTIC MAPPING
Figure 2. Semantic mapping
Semantic mapping is used to help students identify important information from spoken lectures and written text. Students actively use this form of a graphic organizer to filter information. Students can remove any details that are not important to developing an understanding of the target concept and further build upon concepts that may have not been fully explained in the lecture or text. When using semantic mapping, teachers and students work together to develop a visual representation of concept relationships. A superordinate concept (main idea) is the head or center of the visual display. Coordinate concepts (related concepts) connect to the superordinate concept, with subordinate concepts (representative concepts of the coordinate concept) branching out of the coordinate concept. Coordinate concepts include representative example, features, or characteristics of the superordinate concept (Dexter & Hughes, 2011, p. 53). Subordinate concepts further support the coordinate concepts. An example of semantic mapping is featured in Figure 2.
Semantic feature analysis
Figure 3. Semantic feature analysis
Semantic feature analysis, like semantic mapping, helps students identify and understand information presented in lectures and text. Semantic feature analysis uses superordinate, coordinate, subordinate concepts to develop student understanding of instruction material. However, unlike with semantic mapping, the information is presented in a matrix. The superordinate concept is labeled at the top of the matrix; coordinate concepts are labeled on the top row and separated into individual columns; and subordinate concepts are labeled on the first column and separated into individual rows (Dexter & Hughes, 2011, p. 54). An example of a semantic feature analysis is displayed in Figure 3.
Syntactic/semantic feature analysis
Figure 4. Syntactic/ semantic feature analysis
Syntactic/semantic feature analysis adds one more component to the semantic feature analysis. In addition to the matrix, cloze sentences (sentences with missing words) are written underneath the matrix (Dexter & Hughes, 2011, p. 54). An example of syntactic/ semantic feature analysis is shown in Figure 4.
Visual displays
Figure 5. Venn diagram
Visual displays show concepts or facts through spatial representation. Relationships between concepts are shown through their relative location with respect to one another on the visual display. Concepts can be represented temporally through a timeline, spatially though a decision tree, sequentially through a flowchart, hierarchically through a taxonomy chart, or comparatively though a Venn diagram (Dexter & Hughes, 2011, p. 54). Figure 5 gives an example of a Venn diagram being used to compare and contrast two forms of government: monarch and dictatorship.
Challenges
In our hypothetical classroom, five of our students have a learning disability, and ten students have difficulty forming concepts. Research has proven that graphic organizers benefit students with learning disabilities and facilitate students’ understanding and development of concepts.
Students with learning disabilities are characterized as having difficulty in forming connections between new and learned information, filtering information not relevant to key concepts, and synthesizing learned information (Dexter & Hughes, 2011, p. 51). In a meta-analysis of the existing literature, Dexter and Hughes (2011, p. 67) found that graphic organizers improve the factual comprehension of students with learning disabilities, as well as their relational comprehension of information and vocabulary.
Research has shown that graphic organizers benefit students in forming concepts. Bulgren, Schumaker, and Deshler (1988) assessed the use of a Concept Diagram in secondary school classrooms. The results of their study found that the students using the Concept Diagram made gains in concept acquisition and improved their test performance.
Students with learning disabilities are characterized as having difficulty in forming connections between new and learned information, filtering information not relevant to key concepts, and synthesizing learned information (Dexter & Hughes, 2011, p. 51). In a meta-analysis of the existing literature, Dexter and Hughes (2011, p. 67) found that graphic organizers improve the factual comprehension of students with learning disabilities, as well as their relational comprehension of information and vocabulary.
Research has shown that graphic organizers benefit students in forming concepts. Bulgren, Schumaker, and Deshler (1988) assessed the use of a Concept Diagram in secondary school classrooms. The results of their study found that the students using the Concept Diagram made gains in concept acquisition and improved their test performance.
Application
The existing research suggests that graphic organizers are best used during the initial lesson and the review lesson. Instruction-intensive graphic organizers, such as semantic mapping and semantic feature analysis, work best for immediate recall of information, and therefore should be used during the initial lesson. Computationally efficient graphic organizers, such as syntactic/semantic feature analysis and visual displays are best for the maintenance of information, and therefore should be used during the review lesson (Dexter & Hughes, 2011, p. 69).
Graphic organizers are tools for students to use, and students must first be taught how to use graphic organizers, like any tool. Once students learn how to use them, though, graphic organizers can increase the effectiveness of instruction. Teachers can tailor the use of the different types of graphic organizers to their lessons, utilizing their features for better instruction.
Graphic organizers are tools for students to use, and students must first be taught how to use graphic organizers, like any tool. Once students learn how to use them, though, graphic organizers can increase the effectiveness of instruction. Teachers can tailor the use of the different types of graphic organizers to their lessons, utilizing their features for better instruction.